INTRODUCTION:

The development theory is largely a product of post world war II(1939-1945) thinking in the social sciences and international policy studies. The key intellectual challenges for development theory are such as 1) what are the causes of economic transformation in human societies? What are source of the policies through which governments can stimulate the processes of economic growth? These questions have been the subject of enquiry within classical political economy for several centuries and interest in the determinants of growth and modernization has been part of economic theory since its beginnings¹.

The modern development theory took its impulse from global developments following world war II, which needed of reconstruction of Europe and Japan following world war II, the creation of international monetary and trading regimes to facilitate international economic interaction, the circumstances that followed from the dissolution of European colonies in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, growing attention to the persistence of poverty in the developing world and focus in the 1990s on the phenomena of globalization².

The development policy is the general term used to capture the dynamics and the processes of purposive change focused on creating the conditions for economic growth, technological change and human development. There is growing consensus that although economic growth centered in markets and measured in terms of increases in Gross Domestic product (GDP) is indispensable, it is not a sufficient condition to bring about improvements in the human condition in such a way that human development can occur³. Although, the human development concept embraces numerous different indices, it is generally defined as the process of enlarging peoples choices in terms of securing human rights, guaranteeing their basic necessities and enabling them to improve the quality of their own lives. Linked to this shift toward thinking of development in more humane terms are initiatives involving empowerment, participation, equity and sustainability⁴.

In the midst of thousands of reports and publications related to development, the annual publications of the world bank’s World Development Report (WDP) and the UNDP’s HDR are the primary sources of information and valuable documents to consult in understanding the changing agendas that dominate the discourse on development. As a consequence, in exploring developing issues, reference to the HDI and awareness of the range of indicators used for this index are as important as discussions of GDP, tables surveying economic growth and understanding the economic and social indicators used to measure development on a world wide basis⁵. The WDP and HDRs are adopt the language of development policy and focus on HD as the basis for promoting human rights globally, and creating more open societies and economics in an interdependent world where poverty, violence and conflict continue unabated⁶. Anthony Giddens was among the first scholars to begin serious enquiry into globalization. In an interview, he remarked upon the rapid acceptance of the term since the 1980s. Nayan Chanda observed that “the term globalization emerged because the visibility of our globally connected life called for a word to sum up the phenomenon of this interconnectedness⁷.

To define globalization, many writers place their focus on economic aspects. The dictionary of Merriam –Webster defines globalization as “the act or process of globalizing, the state of being globalized, especially the development of an increasingly integrated global economy marked especially by free trade, free flow of capital and the tapping of cheaper foreign labour markets”⁸. Thomas Friedman writes in his book on ‘The Lexus and the Olive Tree’ that, “globalization involves the inexorable integration of markets, nation states and technologies to a degree never witnessed before in a way that is enabling individuals, corporations and nation states to reach around the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before”. The globalization is best conceived as multiple, ongoing and interconnected processes such as economic, political and cultural⁹. However, decolonization and the aftermath of world war II stimulated a wave of academic and policy interest in the dynamics of economic growth and development. President Harry Truman highlighted the crucial importance of addressing global issues of poverty and hunger in his 1949 state of the union address, an emphasis that stimulated new United States and international commitments in support of economic development in the decolonized world. The 1950s witnessed a surge of early development theory in the hands of such authors as Simon Kuznets, W. Arthur Lewis and Ben Hoflitz. A central trust of these efforts was the formulation of economic theories of growth that it was hoped could help to guide policy in the economic transformations associated with decolonization. The post war development theory also provided some of the intellectual foundations for the establishment of post war international economic institutions such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund¹⁰.

There has been emphasis since the 1960s, some times waxing, some times waning on the crucial importance of alleviating poverty in the developing world. Throughout much of its history, the World Bank has expressed its adherence to the priority of poverty alleviation. The United Nations Millennium Goals for 2005 place poverty alleviation at the center of the development agenda for the coming fifty years. Several important frame works of thought have been important in development theory thinking. Neoliberal development theory reflects the folk wisdom of neoclassical economic and political theory. Described as the “Washington Consensus”, this approach to development postulates that modern economic development requires free markets, effective systems of law, and highly limited powers of government. The slogan of “Getting the prices Right” was a rule of thumb for economic institutional reform in countries receiving advice and assistance from international institutions. The school of thought places great importance on free trade within the international economic system¹¹. The neoliberal structural adjustment reforms in the 1980s enforced through IMF and World Bank policies, pushed 3^rd world governments toward harsh domestic reforms (currency devaluation, reduction of programs aimed at the poor, elimination of subsidies for rural development, liberalization of trade practices). Critics have argued that these structural adjustment policies have had the effect of further impoverishing the poorest of many developing societies. Critical of the neoliberal consensus in an influential group of development theorists who emphasize the centrality of human well being in development theorizing and the crucial role that public policies and expenditures play in successful efforts to improve the well being of the poor in developing societies¹².

However, in order to overcome the globalization, Amartya Sen, Martha Nussbaum and others argue for placing a nuanced theory of Human Development (HD) grounded in capabilities and functionings at the center of development policy. This is for the irrespective of north and south countries. They argued for the crucial role that public policy has in creating the human welfare infrastructure that is essential for the successful alleviation of destitution such as public health, nutrition, free education and democratic freedoms. On this view, the narrow conception of the role of the state associated with the neoliberal approach almost inevitably implies further degradation of the conditions of life of the least well off in the developing world¹³. A concrete achievement of this approach is the creation and maintenance of the HDI by the UNDP. This index is designed to provide a measure of economic development that goes beyond measuring growth of per capita income, and instead for example focuses on measures that are correlated with quality of life such as health, longevity and educational attainment. Another such measure is the physical quality of life index¹⁴. The term HD that came into prominence through the work of Amartya Sen, which denotes the development toward a more humane society in which a maximum number of people live in dignity. From a humanist position, a dignified life is a life that people have reason to value because they are free to shape it in accordance with their own and mutually agreed ideals. This notion of HD is inspired by an inherently emancipative idea of the good life that unifies republican, liberal, contractual and democratic thought as noted by David Held. To be human in this perspective means to have the potential to reason, to judge, to choose and thus to be an agent who is in control of one’s actions and life. The most humane life is an emancipative life that one lives in self determination¹⁵.

As far as the strengths of HD theory is concerned, compared to with other concepts in the social sciences, HD theory offers a broad perspective by integrating economic, cultural and institutional aspects of social reality into a common frame work. This breadth of perspective does not come at the expense of the analytical focus. Instead, HD theory sharpens the analytical focus by relating all 3 aspects of social reality to the empowerment of people as the lead theme. The HD frame work is inspired by an emancipative idea of the good society and the good life¹⁶. The HD is regarded as an emancipation. In fact, Amartya Sen draws on the emancipative notion of HD in psychology, but he relates it to societies as the unit of reference. When the good life is an emancipated life, the good society is a society that makes a maximum number of people capable to live emancipative lives. Because, as members of the human race, all people are of equal existential value, every person has the same right to an emancipated life, opportunities to live in emancipation must be equally distributed in a humane society. In that sense, HD theory construes the ideals of freedom and equality as interdependent rather than contradictory¹⁷. Due to Sen’s capability approach, the HD of societies can be measured by how widely emancipative capabilities are distributed. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) follows the capability approach in its annual HD reports, which publishes a Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI summarizes on a per country basis information on the average person’s life expectancy, educational attainment and per capita income, assuming that longevity, education, and income increase ordinary peoples capabilities to live an emancipated life¹⁸.

The UNO and UNDP:

The UNDP is the UN's global development network, an organization advocating for change and connecting countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. The UNDP works in about 170 countries and territories, helping to achieve the eradication of poverty, and the reduction of inequalities and exclusion. The UNDP help countries to develop policies, leadership skills, partnering abilities, institutional capabilities and build resilience in order to sustain development results¹⁹. However, in 1990, the first Human Development Report introduced a new approach for advancing human wellbeing. The HD or the human development approach is about expanding the richness of human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live. It is an approach that is focused on people and their opportunities and choices²⁰. Adam Smith has called human development as “the ability to mix with others without being ashamed to appear in publick”²¹. The HD has two sides. The first one is the formation of human capabilities such as improved health, knowledge and skills. The second one is the use people make of their acquired capabilities for leisure, productive purposes or being active in cultural, social and political affairs. If the scales of human development do not finely balance the two sides, considerable human frustration may result. According to this concept of HD, income is clearly only one option that people would like to have, albeit an important one. But it is not the sum total of their lives. Development must therefore be more than just an expansion of income and wealth. Its focus must be people²².

The term HD here denotes both the process of widening people's choices and the level of their achieved wellbeing. It also helps to distinguish clearly between two sides of HD. One is the formation of human capabilities such as improved health or knowledge. The other is the use that people make of their acquired capabilities for work or leisure. This way of looking at development differs from the conventional approaches to economic growth, human capital formation, human resource development, human welfare or basic human needs²³. The HD by contrast, brings together the production, distribution of commodities and the expansion as well as use of human capabilities. It also focusses on choices on what people should have be and do to be able to ensure their own livelihood. The HD is moreover concerned not only with basic needs satisfaction but also with human development as a participatory and dynamic process. It applies equally to less developed and highly developed countries.

Evolution of Human Development since 1960:

The brief analysis of Human Development since 1960 revealed that the developing countries have made significant progress towards human development in the last three decades. They increased life expectancy at birth from 46 years in 1960 to 62 years in 1987. They halved the mortality rates for children under five and immunized two-thirds of all one year olds against major childhood diseases. The developing countries also made primary health care accessible to 61% of their people and safe water to 55% (80% in urban areas). In addition, they increased the per capita calorie supply by about 20% between 1965 and 1985. Their progress in education was equally impressive. Adult literacy rates have rose from 43% in 1970 to 60% in 1985 and male literacy from 53% to 71% as well as female literacy from 33% to 50%²⁴. The South's primary educational output in 1985 was almost six times greater than that in 1950. Moreover, its secondary educational output more than 18 times greater. The results were 1.4 billion literate people in the South in 1985, compared with nearly a billion in the North. The North-South gaps in human development narrowed considerably during this period even while income gaps tended to widen. The South's average per capita income in 1987 was still only 6% of the North's, but its average life expectancy was 80% and its average literacy rate 66% of the North's. The North-South gap in life expectancy narrowed from 23 years in 1960 to 12 years in 1987, and the literacy gap from 54 percentage points in 1970 to less than 40 percentage points in 1985. The developing countries also reduced their average infant mortality from 200 deaths per 1,000 live births to 79 between 1950 and 1985, a feat that took nearly a century in the industrial countries²⁵.

The picture of human development needs qualification. Human progress does not take place automatically and higher income is no guarantee for a better life. The problems of reversed or de-formed human development challenge both developing and developed countries, but they also underscore the centrality of human development as a continuing policy concern and priority. Development, even in countries at higher incomes cannot afford to lose sight of its primary goal that is the betterment of human life²⁶. The human development is necessary because the human development approach focusses on improving the lives of people rather than assuming that economic growth will lead automatically to greater opportunities for all. Human development is about giving people more freedom and opportunities to live lives they value, e.g. educating people, especially to girls. Human Development creates the right conditions for all. For example, create environmental sustainability or equality between men and women. Once, the basics of human development are achieved, they open up opportunities for progress in other aspects of life. It also helps to create awareness among people towards their responsibilities as a citizen and human being to build up opinion for a reduction in the military expenditure, demobilisation of armed forces, disarmament and all those activities which are responsible for civil disturbances²⁷.

However, the series of global Human Development Reports published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) since 1990 as independent, analytically and empirically grounded discussions of major development issues, trends and policies²⁸. These reports have been prepared at the Human Development Report Office (HDRO) of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). It has been preparing the global, regional, national and subnational HDRs to foster human development. The UNDP’s works covered member states are implementing these global HD reports relevant public policies in their respective states for their respective states people development purpose. So far, there are 29 global HDRs prepared by the UNDP. This paper has concentrated on the UNDP’s first decade(1990s) of global HDRs public policies for analysis in order to assess the trends of good public policies for the development of its people in the world.

The First Decade (1990-1999) Focused themes of global HDRs:

The first decade (1990s) 10 global HDRs public policies themes are briefly analyzed below.

1) Human Development Report 1990: Concept and Measurement of Human Development:

An UNDP has undertaken to produce an annual report on the human dimension of development. This is the first such effort. The central message of this report is that while growth in national production like GDP is absolutely necessary to meet all essential human objectives, what is important is to study how this growth translates or fails to translate into human development in various societies. Some societies have achieved high levels of human development at modest levels of per capita income. Other societies have failed to translate their comparatively high income levels and rapid economic growth into commensurate levels of human development²⁹. The orientation of this report is practical and pragmatic. It aims to analyse country experience to distill practical insights. Its purpose is neither to preach nor to recommend any particular model of development. Its purpose is to make relevant experience available to all policy makers. The report is of a seminal nature. It made a contribution to the definition, measurement and policy analysis of human development. This report is accompanied by the human development indicators, which assemble all available social and human data for each country in a comparable form. The preparation of this report had been an United Nations system wide initiative. This report was prepared by a team of UNDP staff and eminent outside consultants under the overall guidance of Mahbub ul Haq, who was the former Finance and Planning Minister of Pakistan in his capacity as Special Adviser to an Administrator of UNDP³⁰.

Apart from an overview and HD indicators, this report is divided into 5 chapters. The chapter one dealt Defining and measuring human development, chapter two dealt Human development since 1960, chapter three dealt Economic growth and human development, chapter four dealt Human development strategies for the 1990s and chapter five dealt a special focus on Urbanisation and human development³¹. However, this Report is about people and about how development enlarges their choices. It is about more than GNP growth, more than income as well as wealth and more than producing commodities as well as accumulating capital. A person's access to income may be one of the choices, but it is not the sum total of human endeavour. The human development is a process of enlarging people's choices. The most critical of these wide ranging choices are to live a long and healthy life, to be educated and to have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living. An additional choices include political freedom, guaranteed human rights and personal self respect. Development enables people to have these choices³².

No one can guarantee human happiness and the choices people make are their own concern. But the process of development should at least create a conducive environment for people, individually and collectively to develop their full potential and to have a reasonable chance of leading productive and creative lives in accord with their needs and interests. The human development thus concerns more than the formation of human capabilities such as an improved health or knowledge. It also concerns the use of these capabilities, be it for work, leisure or political and cultural activities. If the scales of human development fail to balance the formation and use of human capabilities much human potential will be frustrated³³. The report analyzed the record of human development for the last three decades and an experience of 14 countries in managing economic growth and human development. Several policy conclusions from this experience underpin a detailed analysis of human development strategies during the 1990s. This report ends with a special focus on the problems of human development in an increasingly urban setting. An orientation of this report is practical, looking not just at what is to be done but also at how³⁴. However, this first report relies on readily available data. In many respects this has limited the scope and depth of its analysis. Not only are many relevant concerns not reflected adequately through existing statistics, but the data that are available often have an inadequate coverage of countries and are seriously lacking in timeliness³⁵.

2) Human Development Report 1991: Financing Human Development:

This report focus was about financing human development. A single powerful idea runs through it that the potential is enormous for restructuring national budgets and international aid in favour of human development. This report concluded that much current spending was misdirected and inefficiently used. If the priorities are set right, more money will be available for accelerated human progress. The lack of political commitment and not of financial resources was often the real cause of human neglect. That was the main conclusion of HD Report 199³⁶. Apart from an overview, this report is divided into 6 chapters. The chapter one dealt the measuring human development and freedom, chapter two dealt the state of human development, chapter three dealt financing human development, chapter four dealt efficiency in human development, chapter five dealt the politics of reform and chapter six dealt a new human order³⁷.

The major highlights of this this report mentioned was that high levels of human development tend to be achieved within the framework of high levels of human freedom, the human expenditure ratio should become one of the principal guides to public spending policy, food subsidies can be a vital tool for transferri1tg income to the poor, developing countries can save over $10 billion a year by merely freezing their military expenditure at current levels and If we can mobilize the political base for action, the future of human development is secure³⁸. However, this report focus was about financing human development. This was mainly because in many developing countries, the real social expenditure per head has declined in recent years, developing country external debt doubled over the past decade, internal debt is beginning to exceed the external debt in many developing countries, the record of most public enterprises was very poor and Ironically, the wealthy often benefit more than the poor from public, social services³⁹.

3) Human Development Report 1992: Global Dimensions of Human Development

The world has a unique opportunity in the current decade to use global markets for the benefit of all nations and all people. This report looked at the workings of these global markets at how they meet or fail to meet the needs of the world's poorest people. The global issues in this report supplement an analysis of domestic policy issues in the first two HD reports, which stressed that the real causes of poverty and human deprivation lie deep in the national policy actions of the developing countries. Improvements in external environment can help greatly, but they can never substitute for domestic reforms. This report attempted to place global markets in proper perspective. The competitive markets are the best guarantee for efficient production. But these markets must be open to all the people, they require a skillfully crafted regulatory framework and they must be supplemented by judicious social policy action⁴⁰. Apart from an overview, this was divided into five chapters. The chapter one dealt the concept and measurement of human development, chapter two dealt Political freedom and human development, chapter three dealt the widening gap in global opportunities, chapter four dealt Global markets, poor nations, poor people, and chapter five dealt a new vision for global human development⁴¹. However, the basic message of this year's report was that removing many of the restrictions on world trade will help global markets to deliver more fully the benefits they have always promised. And by making a substantial investment in human capacity building, economic management and technology, developing countries can engage in world trade as equal partners and earn equal benefits⁴².

4) Human Development Report 1993: People's Participation:

People's participation is becoming the central issue focus of our time. The democratic transition in many developing countries, the collapse of many socialist regimes and the worldwide emergence of people's organizations are all part of a historic change not just isolated events. People today have an urge and an impatient urge to participate in the events and processes that shape their lives. That impatience brings many dangers and opportunities. It can dissolve into anarchy, ethnic violence or social disintegration. But if properly nurtured in a responsive national and global framework, it can also become a source of tremendous vitality and innovation for the creation of new and more just societies. The dangers arise as an irresistible urge for participation clashes with inflexible systems. Although the achievements in human development have been significant during the past three decades, the reality is continuing exclusion. More than a billion of the world's people still languish in absolute poverty and the poorest fifth find that the richest fifth enjoy more than 150 times their income. Women still earn only half as much as men and despite constituting more than half the votes have great difficulty securing even 10% representation in parliaments. Rural people in developing countries still receive less than half the income opportunities and social services available to their urban counterparts. Many ethnic minorities still live like a separate nation within their own countries. The political and economic democracy is still a reluctant process in several countries. Our world is still a world of difference⁴³.

Apart from an overview, this report is divided into 5 parts. Part one dealt Trends in human development, part two dealt People's participation, part three dealt People and markets, part four dealt People and governance and part five dealt People in community organizations. Participation means that people are closely involved in the economic, social, cultural and political processes that affect their lives. Participation, certainly not a new term, has been a part of the development vocabulary since the 1960s, or even before. But it has generally referred only to people's involvement in particular projects or programmes. In this Report, the critical difference is that participation is an overall development strategy-focusing on the central role that people should play in all spheres of life. Human development involves widening their choices, and greater participation enables people to gain for themselves access to a much broader range of opportunities⁴⁴. This report has concentrated on participation in development through markets, government and community organizations⁴⁵.

5) Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security:

This report has introduced a new concept of human security, which equates security with people rather than territories, with development rather than arms. It examined both the national and the global concerns of human security. The report seeks to deal with these concerns through a new paradigm of sustainable human development, which capturing the potential peace dividend, a new form of development co-operation and a restructured system of global institutions. It proposes that the World Summit for Social Development approve a world social charter, endorse a sustainable human development paradigm, create a global human security fund by capturing the future peace dividend, approve a 20:20 compact for human priority concerns, recommend global taxes for resource mobilization and establish an Economic Security Council. An increasing human security entails: Investing in human development, not in arms; Engaging policy makers to address the emerging peace dividend; Giving the United Nations a clear mandate to promote and sustain development; Enlarging the concept of development cooperation so that it includes all flows, not just aid; Agreeing that 20 percent of national budgets and 20 percent of foreign aid be used for human development and Establishing an Economic Security Council⁴⁶.

Apart from an overview, this report is divided into 5 chapters. The chapter one dealt towards sustainable human development, chapter two dealt New dimensions of human security, chapter three dealt Capturing the peace dividend, chapter four dealt A new design for development cooperation and chapter five The human development index revisited. In defining security, it is important that human security not be equated with human development. Human development is a broader concept defined as a process of widening the range of people's choices. Human security means that people can exercise these choices safely and freely and that they can be relatively confident that the opportunities they have today are not totally lost tomorrow⁴⁷. Human security is not a concern with weapons. It is a concern with human life and dignity⁴⁸.

6) Human Development Report 1995: Gender and Human Development:

The HD, if not engendered is endangered. That was the simple but far reaching focus message of this report. The report analysed the progress made in reducing gender disparities in the past few decades, highlighting the wide and persistent gap between women's expanding capabilities and limited opportunities. It introduced two new measures for ranking countries on a global scale by their performance in gender equality (GEM) and (GDI), and analyses the under-valuation and non-recognition of women's work. It offers a five-point strategy for equalizing gender opportunities in the decade ahead. These are 1)National and international efforts must mobilize to win legal equality of the sexes within a defined period;2) Many economic and institutional arrangements need revamping to extend more choices to women and men in the work place; 3) A critical 30% threshold should be regarded as a minimum share of decision-making positions held by women at the national level;4)Key programmes should embrace universal female education, improved reproductive health and more credit for women; and 5) National and international efforts should target programmes that enable people, particularly women to gain greater access to economic and political opportunities⁴⁹.

However, apart from an overview, this report was divided into six chapters. The chapter one dealt The state of human development, two dealt Still an unequal world, three dealt Measuring gender inequality, four dealt Valuing women's work, fifth dealt Towards equality and the sixth chapter dealt The human development debate⁵⁰ .The major focus of this report were the human development paradigm must be fully engendered, Government intervention is necessary through policy reforms and affirmative actions, Access to productive resources is critical to enhancing women's choices, The new world order must put people-both women and men at the centre of all development processes⁵¹.

7) Human Development Report 1996: Economic Growth and Human Development:

This report opens with a focus fundamental statement as "Human development is the end-economic growth a means". The report argued that economic growth, if not properly managed can be jobless, voiceless, ruthless, rootless as well as futureless and thus detrimental to human development. The quality of growth is therefore as important as its quantity for poverty reduction, human development and sustainability. The report concluded that the links between economic growth and human development must be deliberately forged and regularly fortified by skillful and intelligent policy management. It identifies employment as critical for translating the benefits of economic growth into the lives of people. But for this to happen, new patterns of growth will need to be developed and sustained well into the 21st century and new mechanisms must be developed to integrate the weak and the vulnerable into expanding global economy. To support economic growth as a means to enrich people's lives, this report demonstrated that economic growth is not sustainable without human development⁵².

Apart from an overview, this was divided into four chapters. The chapter one dealt Trends in growth and human development, two dealt Growth as a means to human development, three dealt Links between growth and human development, and the fourth chapter dealt Translating growth into employment opportunities⁵³. This report focused that Human development and economic growth should move together and strongly linked, investing in women's capabilities and empowering them is the surest way to contribute to economic growth and overall development and a strategy for economic growth that emphasizes people and their productive potential is the only way to open opportunities. However, this report concludes that more economic growth, not less, will generally be needed as the world enters the 21st century. But more attention must go to the structure and quality of that growth-to ensure that it is directed to supporting human development, reducing poverty, protecting the environment and ensuring sustainability⁵⁴.

8) Human Development Report 1997: Human Development to Eradicate Poverty:

Eradicating poverty everywhere is more than a moral imperative and it is a practical possibility. That was the most important focus message of this report. The world has the resources and the know how to create a poverty free world in less than a generation. The report focused not just on poverty of incomes but on poverty from a human development perspective, which says poverty as a denial of choices and opportunities for living a tolerable life. To overcome this, the strategies proposed in the report go beyond income redistribution and encompassing action in the critical areas of gender equality, pro-poor growth, globalization and the democratic governance of development. Eradicating poverty entails investing in human development such as health and education⁵⁵. Apart from an overview, the report was divided into six chapters. The first chapter was dealt Poverty in the human development perspective: concept and measurement, two dealt Progress and setbacks, three dealt Resisting new forces of poverty in a changing world, four dealt Globalization-poor nations, poor people, fifth dealt The politics of poverty eradication, and the sixth dealt Eradicating human poverty worldwide-an agenda for the 21st century⁵⁶. However, the report mentioned that the unprecedented progress in reducing poverty in the 20th century sets the stage for eradicating absolute poverty in an early 21st century, which is a moral imperative and an attainable goal. No longer inevitable, poverty should be relegated to history along with slavery, colonialism and nuclear warfare⁵⁷.

9) Human Development Report 1998: Consumption for Human Development:

This report investigated the 20th century's growth in consumption, unprecedented in its scale and diversity. The benefits of this consumption have spread far and wide. More people are better fed and housed than ever before. The living standards have risen to enable hundreds of millions to enjoy housing etc. Yet the report stated that the benefits of this consumption have been badly distributed, leaving a backlog of shortfalls and gaping inequalities. Furthermore, ever-expanding consumption puts strains on the environment. How do these realities relate to human development? The report demonstrated that rising pressures for conspicuous consumption can turn destructive, reinforcing exclusion, poverty and inequality⁵⁸. So, the consumption has to be mainly for human development purpose only. Apart from an overview, this report was divided into five chapters. The chapter one dealt The state of human development, two dealt Consumption from a human development perspective, three dealt Consumption in a global village-unequal and unbalanced, four dealt Unequal human impacts of environmental damage and five dealt Agenda for action⁵⁹.

However, this report mentioned that the real issue is not consumption itself but its patterns and effects. The consumption patterns today must be changed to advance human development tomorrow. The consumer choices must be turned into a reality for all. Human development paradigms, which aim at enlarging all human choices, must aim at extending and improving consumer choices too. It also pointed out that ensure minimum consumption requirements for all-as an explicit policy objective in all countries. Its agenda for action was that mainly five goals are central like raise the consumption levels of more than a billion poor people-more than a quarter of humanity, who have been left out of the global expansion of consumption and are unable to meet their basic needs etc. It recommended that remove perverse subsidies and restructure taxes to shift incentives from consumption that damages the environment to consumption that promotes human development. This report also highlighted that increases in consumption must also nurture links to human development⁶⁰. The human development perspective focused on the many different ways in which consumption of goods and services affects people's lives. From such a people's perspective consumption is a means to human development. Its significance lies in enlarging people's capabilities to live long and to live well. The consumption opens opportunities without which a person would be left in human poverty⁶¹.

10) Human Development Report 1999: Globalization with a Human Face:

Global markets, global technology, global ideas and global solidarity can enrich the lives of people everywhere. This report argued that globalization is not new, but that the present era of globalization driven by competitive global markets is outpacing the governance of markets and the repercussions on people. This is characterized by “shrinking space, shrinking time and disappearing borders”, globalization has swung open the door to opportunities. Breakthroughs in communications technologies and biotechnology, if directed for the needs of people can bring advances for all of humankind. But markets can go too far and squeeze the non-market activities so vital for human development⁶². Apart from an overview and ten years of Human Development, this report was divided into five chapters. The chapter one dealt Human development in this age of globalization, two dealt New technologies and the global race for knowledge, three dealt The invisible heart care and the global economy, four dealt National responses to make globalization work for human development and fifth dealt Reinventing global governance for humanity and equity⁶³.

This 10^th report like the first and all others was about people. It was about the growing interdependence of people in today’s globalizing world. The challenge of globalization in the new century is not to stop the expansion of global markets. The challenge is to find the rules and institutions for stronger governance such as local, national, regional and global in order to preserve the advantages of global markets and competition, but also to provide enough space for human, community and environmental resources to ensure that globalization works for people not just for profits⁶⁴. In order to have a globalization with a human face, the report had mentioned that 1) the relentless pressures of global competition are squeezing out care, the invisible heart of human development, 2) National and global governance have to be reinvented with human development and equity at their core. 3)Strengthen policies and actions for human development and adapt them to the new realities of the global economy, 4) Social policies and national governance are even more relevant today to make globalization work for human development and to protect people against its new threats,5) Enhance public action to develop technologies for human development and the eradication of poverty,6) Take stronger global action to tackle global threats to human security, 7) Remedy the imbalances in the structures of global governance with new efforts to create a more inclusive system and 8) Stronger governance is needed to preserve the advantages of global market competition, and to turn the forces of globalization to support human advance⁶⁵.

CONCLUSION:

To sum up this paper, it is found that different themes had been adopted by the UNDP for its global HDRs public policies of the 1990s for the development of its people purpose. Moreover, the first global HDR was dealt the concept and measurement of HD, the second financing for the HD, the third global dimensions of HD, the fourth people's participation, the fifth new dimensions of human security, the sixth gender equality in HD, the seventh economic growth and HD, the eight was HD to eradicate poverty, the ninth was related to consumption for HD and finally the ten global HDR was focused on the globalization has to be with a human face. It is observed that majority of all these ten global HDRs public policies were good.

REFERENCES AND NOTES:

1. Daniel Little ‘Development’ in William A. Darity Jr(2008),(editor in chief), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (Volume 2), 2nd edition, New York, Gale: Cengage Learning, p.337.

2. Ibid

3. Lawrence S. Graham, “Development Policy” in Domonic A. Bearfield and Melvin J. Dubnick (2016) (edited), Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy, Third edition, Volume 2, Boca Raton, CRC Press: Taylor and Francis Group, p.915

4. Ibid

5. Ibid

6. Ibid,p.917

7. Jack Lule,“Globalization and Media” in Domonic A. Bearfield and Melvin J. Dubnick(2016)(edited), Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy, Third edition, Volume 3, Boca Raton, CRC Press: Taylor and Francis Group, p.1566

8. Ibid

9. Ibid

10. Ibid,no.1, p.338

11. Ibid

12. Ibid

13. Ibid

14. Ibid

15. Christian Welzel, “Human Development” in Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, Leonardo Morlino(2011)(edited), International Encyclopedia of Political Science, volume 4, Los Angeles, Sage Publications, Inc,p.1101.

16. Ibid,p.1103.

17. Ibid, no.15

18. Ibid

19. https://www.undp.org/turkiye/undp-and-un

20. https://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev, accessed on May 7, 2022

21. UNDP(1990),‘Human Development Report 1990’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/219/hdr_1990_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.10.

22. Ibid

23. Ibid

24. Ibid, P.17

25. Ibid

26. Ibid, no.20, P.41.

27. https://www.learncbse.in/geography-class-12-important-questions-chapter-13/, accessed on May 7, 2022

28. UNDP(2015), ‘Human Development Report 2015: Work for Human Development’, New York, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2015_human_development_report_0.pdf

29. Ibid,no.20, P. iii.

30. Ibid, p. iv

31. Ibid, p.Viii

32. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990, accessed on 3rd August, 2021.

33. Ibid

34. Ibid, no.20, p.1

35. Ibid, p.112

36. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1991, accessed on 5th August,2021

37. UNDP(1991), ‘Human Development Report 1991’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/220/hdr_1991_en_complete_nostats.pdf,p.Viii

38. Ibid,p.11

39. Ibid,p.52

40. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1992, accessed on 5th August, 2021

41. UNDP(1992), ‘Human Development Report 1992’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/221/hdr_1992_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.vii

42. Ibid, p.11

43. http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1993, accessed on 6th August, 2021.

44. UNDP(1993), ‘Human Development Report 1993’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/222/hdr_1993_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.21

45. Ibid, p.29

46. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1994,accessed on 6th August, 2021

47. UNDP(1994), ‘Human Development Report 1994’ New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/255/hdr_1994_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.23

48. Ibid, p.22

49. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1995,accessed on 13th August,2021

50. UNDP (1995), ‘Human Development Report 1995’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/256/hdr_1995_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.viii,

51. Ibid, p.10

52. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1996,accessed on 13th August, 2021

53. UNDP(1996), ‘Human Development Report 1996’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/257/hdr_1996_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.vii

54. Ibid,p.1

55. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1997,accessed on 13th August, 2021

56. UNDP(1997), ‘Human Development Report 1997’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/258/hdr_1997_en_complete_nostats.pdf ,p.viii

57. Ibid,p.116

58. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1998, accessed on 13th August, 2021

59. UNDP(1998), ‘Human Development Report 1998’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/259/hdr_1998_en_complete_nostats.pdf, p.viii

60. Ibid,p.13

61. Ibid,p.38

62. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1999,accessed on 13th August,2021

63. UNDP(1999), ‘Human Development Report 1999’, New York, Oxford University Press, Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/260/hdr_1999_en_nostats.pdf,p.x.

64. Ibid,p.2.

65. Ibid,p.13.

Received on 29.09.2023 Modified on 19.12.2023

Res. J. Humanities and Social Sciences. 2024;15(1)78-86.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2024.00012